Two types of names are handed down from generation to generation: surnames and given names. Surnames have obvious genealogical links that can indicate country of origin, ethnicity, and even religion, and genealogists must be aware of the difficulties of surname research. Given names, however, can also provide clues to family history. Both types of names, therefore, should be studied in order for genealogists to understand better their ancestral origins.

Nearly everyone has been asked at some point what their first name means and why their parents gave them the name that they did, which indicates that parents often bestow upon their children given names with a history or a purpose behind them. Whether you were named after Aunt Gladys or Grandpa Fred, given names often represent a family legacy. In some cultures, for example, families name their eldest son after his father’s father and their eldest daughter after her mother’s mother. In other cultures, children are given the same name as a recently deceased relative in order to carry on that relative’s memory, or younger siblings receive the same name as a deceased sibling. Obviously, fathers and mothers often name children after themselves, either with a first name or middle name, and women sometimes use their own maiden names for their children’s middle names. Also, some siblings may have the exact same first names but be referred to by their middle names. Finally, don’t be fooled by nicknames. Grandpa Bert’s real name may not have been Albert but Gilbert, Robert, Cuthbert, Herbert, Osbert, or a number of other variations. Doing research to discover what the nicknames of the day typically referred to can be helpful.

When it comes to surnames, most can be traced back to the naming patterns of men in the Middle Ages and typically fall into four broad categories: patronymic or matronymic names, names derived from geographical locations, names based on physical or personal characteristics, and finally occupational names. Patronymic and matronymic surnames use prefixes or suffixes to indicate that someone is the “son of” or “daughter of” someone else. A few patronymic prefixes and suffixes are “O,” “Ab or Ap,” “Mac or Mc,” “Fitz,” “ich,” “itch,” “ev,” “off,” and “ssen or son,” and a few matronymic prefixes are “datter” or “feu.” Place names could indicate geographical locations (i.e. Parris), geographic features (i.e. Brooks), or compass directions (i.e. Eastman). Descriptive names could indicate a physical characteristic (i.e. Broadhead) or a personal characteristic (i.e. Goodman). Finally, occupational names are based on occupation (i.e. Tailor or Miller).

A glance at modern surnames, particularly in America, would lead one to believe that not all surnames fall into these four categories; this variety, however, is based on phonetic variations and human error, which can often make genealogists shake their head in frustration as they struggle to trace their family tree. For example, Fitzgerald can be FitzGerold, Fich Gerrel, or Fitzjairald, depending on the census takes, transcribers, and a number of other factors involved in human error. Phonetic variations often occurred as a result of many ancestors being illiterate and knowing only how their name sounded, not how it was spelled. In addition, some foreign names have varying letter sounds when translated into English, such as Wagner and Vagner or Freer and Veer. Sometimes prefixes or suffixes were dropped (i.e. Van Horn to Horn). Old-fashioned handwriting can also cause modern-day transcribing errors.  Indexers may mistake a “g” for an “s” or an “i” for a “j,” and your Singer ancestor could be indexed under “g” for Ginger. When searching indexes and other documents for your ancestor, be creative and try all of the possible variations for the name or, if possible, use a “soundex,” which will provide you with results that include all of the phonetic possibilities based on the surname you type in. Finally, be aware that different records or even the same record may spell the same person’s surname differently.

At times, surnames may have been purposely changed by immigrants in an effort to sound more American. Ancestors may have anglicized their names by choosing similar American names (Savitch to Savage), translating their names into English (Bleu to Blue), or changing their name entirely and adopting a wife’s name or an alias. As a result of these surname variations, both purposeful and accidental, immediate relatives or direct descendents may have completely different surnames. Also, sons or daughter were sometimes given their mother’s maiden name as a result of divorce or in a desire to carry on the mother’s family name.

Finally, sometimes even an exact match of both given name and surname in an index can still cause a genealogist difficulty. Different people can have the same full name and birthdate and live near each other. Also, keep in mind that no matter how strange or unique a name may seem to modern ears, it could actually have been quite common in your ancestor’s generation. It’s best to double check all of your search findings with corresponding facts and information.

In the end, genealogists must use their knowledge of naming patterns and all of its immense variations and difficulties in order to successfully fill in the blanks of their family tree.

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